Presidential Candidates Campaign for the Oval Office
By Philip Ernest Schoenberg, PhD

Overview

In the 20th century, it has become accepted that a person can actively and openly seek the highest office in the land.  Students will examine modern methods of political campaigning, communication, and image making.

Objectives 

Students will:

• Research historical and contemporary presidential campaigns
• Analyze campaign techniques

• The American President website biographies
• Election 2000 essay section on The American President website
• "Media and the Presidency from 1901 to the Present Day" essay
• American government or American history textbook

Library of Congress:  http://www.loc.gov
Official White House site:  http://www.whitehouse.gov
Dr. Schoenberg's site on the presidents:  http://www.presidentialexpert.com

Interdisciplinary Connections

Presidential speeches may be examined as persuasive speech in debate or speech class. 

Philip Schoenberg, PhD, a veteran of the New York City public schools and secretary emeritus of the Association of Teachers of Social Studies, teaches government and history at the college level.  He has his own website on the presidents, www.presidentialexpert.com.

Media and the Presidency from 1901 to the Present Day
By Philip Ernest Schoenberg, PhD

From the beginning, presidents have had a 'love-hate' relationship with the press. George Washington cursed at some of the media critics at his cabinet meetings. Abraham Lincoln carried in his wallet the day he died a news report in praise of his administration. Today, we use the 'media' as a term to refer to forms of news reporting whether by radio, television, Internet or the printed word.  Nowadays, news events are continuous and can be reported instantaneously to an audience in the billions.  Presidents employ speechwriters to craft their words and media specialists to advise them on what to say and how to say it.  Still others tell the media what the president intended to say—called "spinning."

Republican Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909) declared the presidency to be a "bully pulpit"!  He enjoyed being the chief executive. More than any other president before him, he went on public speaking tours to create support for his programs.  Roosevelt frequently gave "offtherecord" and "background information" interviews.  In response, newspapers would state a "high White House source" had revealed information.  The articles were written in such a way that it was evident that the president was the source. Roosevelt began the practice of launching "trial balloons" — that is, "leaking" a story to test public opinion; if the result proved unfavorable, the White House claimed that the leaked story was never an official decision.  Finally, Roosevelt took advantage of photography, the new technology.  He was photographed doing a wide variety of activities ranging from playing tennis to plunging into the depths of Long Island Sound in a submarine.

Democrat Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) initiated the modern press conference upon the suggestion of his soninlaw, Secretary of the Treasury William McAdoo.  The president would speak to all the reporters directly and answer their questions in writing.  Previously, presidents had their favorite reporters whom they would give exclusive interviews.

Media attention had made Calvin Coolidge (1923-1929), a progressive Republican, into a vice-presidential candidate in 1920.  During the Boston Police Strike of 1919, Coolidge uttered, "Nobody has a right to strike against the public interest at any time."  With these words, the progressive prounion governor supported the mayor of Boston in ending the police strike.  This made Coolidge the media hero of the moment.

Radio and Television

Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt's (1933-1945) use of the media was influenced by his bout of polio.  Polio always remained in the background as a potential issue.  At the start of each of his runs for presidential office, Roosevelt would release a medical report stating that he was in good health.  Even though Roosevelt downplayed his polio, he "donated" his birthday to the March of Dimes to raise money.  In newsreels, Judy Garland and Mickey Rooney asked members of the movie audience to send their dimes to the White House.  When Roosevelt gave his radio "fireside chats," the audience would double or triple.  On the average, he went on the radio once a week so that his appearances always remained special.  Roosevelt liked this format because he did not have to risk speaking standing at a podium. 

Several times while speaking in public, he slipped from an unbolted podium.  He picked up his notes, members of the audience helped him back onto the stage, and he continued as if nothing had happened. This was regarded as inappropriate to report.  Veteran photographers would prevent newcomers from taking pictures of Roosevelt sitting in a wheelchair.  Very few people actually realized how paralyzed he really was.   Speaking on the radio was also a way for FDR to reach the American people instead of relying on newspapers in which the majority were editorially hostile to him while the reporters were sympathetic to him. 

Roosevelt was the first president to hold regular press conferences.  Reporters were not permitted to quote him directly.  When Roosevelt felt the questions were too intrusive or did not want to talk about a particular issue, he would declare, "There is no news today on that."

Television changed the relationship between the president and the press.   Presidents realized they could reach the public directly without being filtered and edited by the media. Harry S. Truman would meet with his advisors to figure out which questions reporters might ask.  He would begin each press conference with a prepared statement and refer reporters back to the statement when appropriate.

During the Truman administration, as the number of reporters grew, a new White House Press Conference room was opened in the Indian Treaty Room in the Old Executive Office.   The room could seat 230 reporters.  The press conference became a news event itself, and more formal in that presidents would prepare to answer the questions.  Truman began the tradition of calling upon reporters by name.  As a result, presidents since Truman have answered each question more carefully. 

Manipulating the Media

Television became the most crucial medium for reaching people in the 1952 campaign. Dwight D. Eisenhower's vicepresidential candidate Richard Nixon used television to survive a devastating charge by his political opponents that he had a campaign "slush" fund.  In his famous "Checkers" speech, Nixon revealed his personal finances, a first for any candidate for high office.  This has forced every aspirant for political office to do so since.

Eisenhower would meet with the press twice a week.  He permitted his meetings to be filmed and then shown on television.  He was the first president to permit direct quotations of what he said.  All material had to be cleared by James Haggerty, his press secretary, to clean up his boss's syntax. Eisenhower would think faster than he spoke and would leave out words.  Occasionally, Eisenhower seemed befuddled at press conferences.  This was an act.  In reality, the president had an extremely sharp mind.  He had been MacArthur's chief speechwriter in the Philippines.

Both Democrat John F. Kennedy and Republican Richard M. Nixon were essentially the middle-of-the- roaders who scarcely differed on the issues.  The result was an election in which the vote was the closest of the century.  In a way, presidential candidates were really being sold as if they were another brand product, such as Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola.

Nixon and Kennedy had agreed to four presidential debates.  The Republican Nixon, supremely confident in his debate skills since childhood, felt he would demolish his opponent.  Democrat Kennedy felt he could only gain as the challenger.  He was telegenic—television loved him and projected charisma; people liked his personality.  People who heard the KennedyNixon debates on radio, such as Kennedy's own vice- presidential running mate Lyndon Johnson, thought that Nixon had won.  On the other hand, people who watched the debate on television concluded that Kennedy had won.  Kennedy spent several days preparing for the debates.  Nixon had been on the go, was physically exhausted from a lot of campaigning, and was feeling ill.  He refused the services of a professional makeup artist to make him look presentable for television.  Nixon looked under the weather with a four o'clock shadow.  Kennedy projected an image of youth and vigor with the nickname of his administration, the "New Frontier."

As president, Kennedy used the prearranged television conference to solidify his relationship with the American people. Kennedy enjoyed his press conferences.  The journalists, in turn, enjoyed questioning him without probing too deeply into his personal life.  Kennedy had an excellent sense of humor that he used to his advantage.  Following the Bay of Pigs invasion in which a U.S.-supported effort to overthrow Fidel Castro failed, he declared, "Victory has many fathers; defeat is an orphan."

Democrat Lyndon Baines Johnson (1963-1969) reassured the nation that he would continue JFK's policies after JFK's assassination in Dallas, Texas.  He had the halo of the martyred president's image behind him, plus his experience as a Senate majority leader for many years.  When Johnson ran for president in his own right, his campaign televised one 30-second spot of a child ("Daisy") looking at flowers as the countdown for an A-bomb was repeated in the background.  This advertisement emphasized the importance of a vote for Johnson and has become one of the most famous campaign commercials.

Controlling Media Access

Johnson opened the door to the privacy of the president's lives when he showed the scars from a gall bladder operation on national television.  Johnson also liked to give surprise press conferences in the Oval Office without television.

Republican Ronald Reagan (1981-1989) was the "Great Communicator" until he was struck down by Alzheimer's disease.  Reagan always attacked the issues, not the personalities. This made it hard for his political enemies to dislike him.  He was able to get legislation passed through a Democratic Congress by appealing to the American people.

Reagan practiced his answers before a press conference.  His staff made it clear that he would not answer any questions outside the White House Press Conference. Nevertheless, he made news when he joked on his weekly radio program that "I'm declaring war on the Soviet Union."   He ignored questions asked at photo opportunities and at other moments. During his administration, press conferences were 30 minutes long, in agreement with the television networks.  

Campaigning for the 1992 Democratic presidential nomination, Bill Clinton (1993-2001)—with his wife Hillary at his side—appeared on 60 Minutes after the Superbowl football game.  He claimed his days of sexual peccadilloes were over.  Public opinion polls indicated people expected politicians to lie to them and accepted Clinton's lack of candor as normal.

Polling has played an important part in Clinton's role in running for governor of Arkansas and for president.  When he was defeated in the race for governor, polling and questioning revealed that people liked him but wanted to punish him.  He changed his campaign style.  His wife began using "Clinton" as her last name, and had a fashion makeover to transform her image into a more acceptable one for Arkansas voters.

As we enter the third millennium, more than ever, the media plays a role in shaping the modern presidency and the modern presidency in shaping the media.  Like the 19th century, media coverage of the 20th century political campaigns appears to have been equally sleazy.  Given the new level of openness that communication on the Internet brings to the political process, it is difficult to gauge how things will play out in the 21st century.  What is clear is that voters will have to carefully sift through the numerous media messages to arrive at the fundamental attributes that a candidate has to bring to the office. 

Philip Schoenberg, PhD, a veteran of the New York City public schools, secretary emeritus of the Association of Teachers of Social Studies, teaches government and history at the college level.  Dr. Schoenberg, an expert on the presidents, has his own website on the presidents, www.presidentialexpert.com.